The Leadership Process in Islam
According to Islam, the two primary roles of a leader are those of servant-leader and guardian-leader.
Leadership in Islam is a trust.
Often, it
takes the form of an explicit contract or pledge between a leader and
his followers that he will try his best to guide them, to protect them
and to treat them fairly and with justice. Hence, the focus of
leadership in Islam is on integrity and justice.
Given the recent
emphasis on ethical behavior in the leadership literature (Kouzes and
Posner, 1995), an examination of the moral bases of leadership from an
Islamic perspective may provide some interesting insights for the field
of leadership in general. In this paper, we will examine what leadership
is from an Islamic perspective, discuss the moral dimensions of
leadership and uncover the characteristics of leaders and followers as
suggested by Islam.
1- Defining Leadership in Islam
| On Leadership in Islam - The Prophet's Leadership in Hajj |
To
begin with, Muslims base their behavior as leader and/or as follower
upon the Word of God as revealed in their Book, the Quran. They believe
that the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad (peace be upon him), has modeled the
way for Muslim leaders and followers for all times. This belief is
supported when God says the following about Prophet Muhammad:
{And you stand an exalted standard of character.} (Al-Qalam 68: 4)
Prophet
Muhammad’s example, then, is what both Muslim leaders and followers
seek to emulate. According to the Prophet Muhammad, leadership in Islam
is not reserved for small elite. Rather, depending upon the situation,
every person is the “shepherd” of a flock, and occupies a position of
leadership. Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said:
"Each of you is a guardian, and each of you will be asked about his subjects." (Al-Bukhari)
In
most circumstances in life, Muslims are urged to appoint a leader and
follow him. According to the Prophet Muhammad, Muslims must appoint a
leader during a trip, select a leader to lead the prayer, and choose a
leader for other group activities. Leadership, then, can be depicted as a
process by which the leader seeks the voluntary participation of
followers in an effort to reach certain objectives. This definition
suggests that leadership is essentially a process whereby the leader
guides willing followers. At all times, a leader must remember that he
cannot compel others to do things against their will.
{Let there be no compulsion in religion.} (Al- Baqarah 2: 256)
Leadership Roles from an Islamic Perspective
According
to Islam, the two primary roles of a leader are those of servant-leader
and guardian-leader. First, the leader is the servant of his followers.
He is to seek their welfare and guide them towards good. The idea of a
leader as a servant has been part of Islam since its beginning, and has
only recently been developed by Robert Greenleaf:
“The
servant-leader is servant first…It begins with the natural feeling that
one wants to serve, to serve first. […] The best test, and the most
difficult to administer, is: Do those served grow as persons?” (The
Servant, 7)
The Prophet Muhammad has emphasized a second major
role of the Muslim leader: to protect his community against tyranny and
oppression, to encourage God-consciousness and taqwa, and to promote justice:
"A commander (of the Muslims) is a shield for them." (Muslim)
Whether
as servant or as guardian, a Muslim leader may make use of certain
bases of power to be effective. Islam recognizes the existence of power,
but suggests an etiquette for its use.
Leadership and the Bases of Power
| Leaders who possess valuable expertise and information have expert power with respect to their followers who need this information to perform their task. |
Power is “the ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources to get something done.” (Power, 10)
“Five
bases of power” (The Bases, 150) are usually mentioned in the
leadership literature; the Islamic perspective of leadership
incorporates all five, but views them differently.
Legitimate Power
Legitimate
power is associated with one’s position in the organization. Generally,
Islam discourages Muslims from actively seeking positions of authority.
Campaigning for a position of power may imply that one is enamored with
the position for one’s own advancement or some other self-serving
reason. Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said:
"Do
not ask for a position of authority, for if you are granted this
position as a result of your asking for it, you will be left alone
(without God’s help to discharge the responsibilities involved in it),
and if you are granted it without making any request for it, you will be
helped (by God in the discharge of your duties)." (Muslim)
An
exception can be made to this injunction when a person sees a situation
in which there is a potential crisis or disaster. Should he have the
expertise required to help others in this situation, he may seek a
specific position so as to provide assistance. For example, Prophet
Joseph (peace be upon him) asked for such a position when he requested
the King of Egypt to be placed in charge of the granaries. A deed,
accompanied by the right intention, is within the parameters of Islam.
Reward Power
A
leader who has position power may also control organizational rewards,
including pay raises, desirable work assignments, or promotions. The
same holds true for Islam. It is noteworthy that the Caliph Omar ibn
Al-Khattab used to pay state officials high salaries. He wanted to
ensure that they would not get tempted by bribes. By treating his
appointees equitably, Omar became one of the most outstanding Islamic
leaders.
Coercive Power
Besides
controlling organizational rewards, a leader in a position of authority
also controls group sanctions. Islam recognizes the legitimacy of
coercive power, but suggests that it should not be used to coerce
followers towards evil. In fact, the Prophet Muhammad once said that:
"Obedience (to the leader) is required only in what is good." (Al-Bukhari)
Placing
emphasis on the role of the leader as servant, Omar was quoted as
saying to the people: “I have appointed over you governors and agents
not to beat your bodies or take your monies, but rather to teach you and
serve you.”
Expert Power
Leaders
who possess valuable expertise and information have expert power with
respect to their followers who need this information to perform their
task. For example, in a prayer congregation, a person may be chosen to
lead the prayers because of his knowledge of Islam. There is no clergy
in Islam.
Referent or Charismatic Power
A
person has charisma when others wish to follow him because they are
attracted by his personality. Born leaders are usually charismatic.
Ethical charismatic leaders, such as Prophet Muhammad and all other
Prophets (peace be upon them), use power for the benefit of mankind,
learn from criticism, work to develop their followers into leaders, and
rely on moral standards. A recent, very charismatic American Muslim
leader was Malcolm X. Many embraced Islam in the USA after listening to,
or reading about him.
“[Malcolm X’s] life showed me something
eminently more useful than skilled oratory: what role religion could
play as one approached this race-conscious society. He provided an
example of how a man could use conviction as a powerful instrument to
change the course of life--one’s own and others.” (American Jihad, 16)
| To serve God, a Muslim leader is to act in accordance with the injunctions of God and His Prophet, and must develop a strong Islamic moral character. |
Given how Islam views leadership
and power, what will ensure that a Muslim leader behaves ethically? The
moral bases of Islamic leadership are expected to provide the inner core
that guides leaders.
2- Moral Bases of Islamic Leadership
Leadership in Islam is rooted in belief and willing submission to the Creator, God. It centers on serving Him:
{And
We made them leaders guiding (men) by Our Command and We sent them
inspiration to do good deeds, to establish regular prayers and to
practice regular charity; and they constantly served Us (and Us only).} (Al-Anbiya’ 21: 73)
To
serve God, a Muslim leader is to act in accordance with the injunctions
of God and His Prophet, and must develop a strong Islamic moral
character. This moral character will be reflected by his increasingly
strong belief in God as he progresses through four stages of spiritual
development:
Iman (faith), Islam, Taqwa (God consciousness) and Ihsan (excellence). Each stage is now discussed in terms of how it affects a Muslim leader’s behavior.
Iman (Faith)
At the core of Islamic moral character is iman or faith in God. Faith implies belief in the oneness of God and the prophethood of Muhammad. A leader with a strong faith will
consider himself and all his possessions as belonging to God. He will
bow his ego, his ideas, his passions and his thinking to God. Faith also implies belief in the life hereafter and in one’s ultimate accountability for one’s deeds. A leader with a firm faith will
not dodge responsibility for his actions, and will continuously
emphasize good deeds. To reinforce this idea, the Quran links faith with
good deeds no less than 60 times.
Although Muslims consider it
desirable to appoint a leader with faith, it may not always be possible
to find such a person. An organization may have to choose between a
strong Muslim with weak leadership skills and a strong leader with
moderate/weak Islamic understanding. The example of Amr ibn Al ‘Aas is
to be remembered here. He had been a Muslim for only four months when he
was appointed by the Prophet to a key leadership position. This issue
was explained by Muslim scholar Ibn Taymiya:
"A leader with weak
or inadequate expertise can bring disaster to an organization whereas a
skilled leader may advance and help the same organization. Even if the
skilled leader were not a strong Muslim, his shortcomings can be made up
through shura or the consultative process of decision making."
Islam
Building upon faith, Islam is
the second layer of the moral personality of an Islamic leader and
followers. Islam means the achievement of peace with God, within oneself
and with the creation of God, through willing submission to Him. As A.
Al-Maududi points out so well:
“Iman is the seed and Islam is the fruition.” (The Islamic Movement, 115)
Because of his or her iman (faith),
a leader who practices Islam will never see himself as supreme. Ali ibn
Abu Talib’s letter to Malik al-Ashtar an-Nukai, the new Governor of
Egypt, stresses this point in the following manner:
"Malik, you
must never forget that if you are a ruler over them, then the Caliph is a
ruler over you, and God is the supreme Lord over the Caliph." (To the
Commander, 8)
Taqwa (God Consciousness)
As
an individual submits to God through Islam, he develops an awe of God.
This all encompassing, inner consciousness of his duty towards Him and
this awareness of his accountability towards Him is taqwa. (116)
As pointed out by Mawdudi: “the essence of taqwa lies in an attitude of heart and mind rather than in an outward form.” (118)
| The principle of justice must be observed by all Muslims— leaders and followers alike. |
When imbued with taqwa, a person’s frame of mind—his thoughts, emotions and inclinations—will reflect Islam. Taqwa will
restrain a Muslim leader or follower from behaving unjustly—whether to
community members, to customers, to suppliers or to anybody else:
{God
commands justice the doing of good and liberality to kith and kin and
He forbids all shameful deeds and injustice and rebellion: He instructs
you that you may receive admonition.} (An-Nahl 16: 90)
Ihsan (Excellence)
Whereas taqwa is the fear of God and the feeling of God’s Presence, ihsan is
the love of God. This love of God motivates the individual Muslim to
work towards attaining God’s Pleasure. The Prophet Muhammad describes ihsan as follows:
"To
worship God as if you see Him, and if you cannot achieve this state of
devotion then you must consider that He is looking at you." (Al-Bukhari)
The constant feeling that God is watching is likely to prompt any leader or follower with Ihsan to behave at his best. The difference between the Muslims with taqwa and Muslims with Ihsan is concisely explained by Mawdudi with the following example:
"Among
government employees, there may be some who perform their duties
scrupulously, but who do not demonstrate any additional commitment.
Other employees, however, push themselves beyond the call of duty; they
are energized, and willing to make sacrifices in the performance of
their tasks. Within the context of Islam, the first group of employees
are like believers who do what is sufficient and necessary; they are
those that have taqwa. By contrast, the second group of employees have ihsan.
These are the Muslim leaders and followers who will tirelessly carry
the banner of Islam under the most difficult circumstances." (119)
Based
on the above discussion of the four layers of Islamic moral character,
leaders and followers may be classified depending on what stage they are
at: Iman, Islam, Taqwa and Ihsan.
The Islamic moral character requires that leaders emphasize the
following five key parameters of Islamic behavior: justice, trust,
righteousness, the struggle towards self-improvement, and promise
keeping.
Justice
“Justice
is a dynamic characteristic” (The Ethical, 241) which each Muslim must
strive to develop whether he is a leader or a follower:
{O
you who believe! Stand out firmly for God as witnesses to fair dealing
and let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and
depart from justice. [...]} (Al-Ma’idah 5: 8)
The need to
achieve a balance and to take a middle road is quite important in a
leader, and is stressed repeatedly by God in the Quran. He describes
those “who will be rewarded with the highest place in heaven” as:
{Those
who, when they spend, are not extravagant and not niggardly, but hold a
just (balance) between those two extremes; [...]} (Al-Furqan 25: 67-8)
Application of Justice to Leadership
The principle of justice must be observed by all Muslims— leaders and followers alike. For example, God admonishes Muslims thus:
{God
does command you to render back your trusts to those to whom they are
due; and when you judge between man and man that you judge with justice
[…]} (An-Nisa’ 4: 58)
This is
why the Prophet Muhammad emphasized that justice must never be
compromised by personal affiliations or other considerations.
Trust
| Once an individual has accepted to be the leader of a group or organization, he has become their trustee. |
This
concept of trust stresses the idea of responsibility towards
organizational stakeholders, and holds true whether those entrusting
something to Muslims are themselves non-Muslims:
{O you that believe! betray not the trust of God and the apostle nor misappropriate knowingly things entrusted to you.} (Al-Anfal 8: 27)
As a core value, trust fits within the overall Islamic etiquette governing social relationships.
Application of Trust to Leadership
Trust
is explicitly linked to leadership in the Quran. We refer to the story
of Prophet Joseph (peace be upon him). After the king had indicated that
he placed great trust in him, Prophet Joseph deliberately asked to be
put in charge of the granaries and storehouses, and the demanding task
of establishing them and guarding them. As one translator of the Quran,
Abdullah Yusuf Ali, points out, Prophet Joseph understood the need to
build reserves better than anyone else, and was prepared to take on this
task himself rather than throw on to another the burden of restricting
supplies in times of plenty.
Once an individual has accepted to be
the leader of a group or organization, he has become their trustee. In a
for-profit, Muslim organization, the management of the organization is
entrusted with the shareholders’ investment. In a nonprofit
organization, the management of the organization is charged with
watching over the properties in the trust. Consequently, any managerial
decision must be balanced with respect to this trust. The concept of
trust can be extended to other dimensions of one’s work as a leader or a
follower. Should one be wasting time or organizational resources in
performing one’s task, one is violating his/her employer’s trust.
Righteousness
Righteous behavior is described as follows:
{It
[…] is righteousness to believe in God and the Last Day and the Angels
and the Book and the Messengers; to spend of your substance out of love
for Him for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for
those who ask [...]; to be steadfast in prayer and practice regular
charity; to fulfil the contracts which you have made; and to be firm and
patient in pain (or suffering) and adversity […]} (Al-Baqarah 2: 177)
These general attributes will now be linked to the attributes that Islamic leaders and followers should embrace.
Application of Righteousness to Leadership
Based on the above verses, several moral attributes of righteous leaders become salient:
- They act justly and do not allow their personal feelings to hinder justice.
- They have faith or iman,
- They take care of those in need, and do so for the love of God,
- They are steadfast in prayer and practice charity,
- They observe all contracts, and
- They are patient no matter what type of adversity they may be experiencing.
In
general, then, organization participants of all faiths are entitled to
be treated with basic human decency and dignity and with the maximum of
fair play and justice. In an Islamic organization, a leader is expected
to be sensitive to their needs.
Struggle within Oneself towards Self-improvement
| The dimension of inner struggle permeates the very progression from iman to ihsan, and continues thereafter |
This
concept is portrayed very accurately by the Quran (see chapter 22:
77-8) Prophet Muhammad stressed the importance of this inner striving to
improve oneself:
"The
believers in the world are in three classes: those who believe in God
and His Messenger and do not doubt, but strive with their property and
their persons in God's cause; the man whom people trust with their
property and their persons; and the man who, when he is about to display
greed, abandons it for the sake of God, Who is Great and Glorious."
(Ahmad)
The dimension of inner struggle permeates the very progression from iman to ihsan, and continues thereafter.
Application of the Concept of Self-Struggle to Leadership
This
principle encapsulates the process of inner struggle towards
self-betterment. Leaders and followers practicing this principle are
continuously monitoring and evaluating their intentions and actions, and
acting to improve themselves accordingly. They work hard at practicing
what they say, and encourage others in this struggle for
self-improvement.
Promise-Keeping
All
Muslims—whether leaders or followers—are urged to keep their promises.
They also cannot make promises that are un-Islamic in nature:
{O you who believe! fulfill (all) obligations.} (Al-Ma'idah 5: 1)
Keeping one’s word characterizes a Muslim. Breaking one’s word is tantamount to hypocrisy.
Application of Promise-Keeping to Leadership
Based
upon the above discussion, keeping promises is very important for all,
and a leader is not exempted from this important principle:
"I
bought something from the Prophet (peace be upon him) before he
received his Prophetic commission, and as there was something still due
to him I promised him that I would bring it to him at his place, but I
forgot. When I remembered three days later, I went to that place and
found him there. He said: […] I have been here for three days waiting
for you." (Abu Dawud)
Now that we have discussed
the bases of Islamic leadership, we need to explore what normative
attributes are required of Muslim leaders and followers.
3- Leader Characteristics
The
characteristics of an Islamic leader affect his/her behavior, and are
congruent with the characteristics of effective leaders identified by
Kouzes and Posner (1995). We will now relate the top four
characteristics identified by these researchers to the Islamic model.
Honesty:
Leaders are considered honest to the extent that there is ‘consistency
between word and deed.’ They do what they say they are going to do. In
the Quran, the Prophet Moses (peace be upon him) is himself labeled as
“strong and trustworthy” by one of the damsels (as in chapter 28: 26)
and the Prophet Joseph (peace be upon him) is described as one who is
truthful. (Chapter 12: 46) Similarly, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be
upon him) used to be called Sadiq (the truthful) and Amin (the trustworthy) during his youth.
Why
is honesty and integrity so important with respect to leaders? Although
Kouzes and Posner (1987) do not provide the reader with an answer,
Islam does. Leadership is more than an assignment or a job; it is a
trust—as already pointed out earlier.
| Followers expect their leaders to remain positive about the future no matter how bad the situation may be |
Competence:
People are more likely to follow a leader’s directives if they believe
that this person knows what he or she is doing. If followers doubt the
capabilities of their leader, they will be less enthusiastic in
accepting directions from him. As suggested by Hollander (1978), a
leader who is competent in one situation may not be competent in
another. Except in matters where he had received a direct revelation
from God, the Prophet Muhammad would often seek and follow the advice of
his companions. As the Indian Islamic scholar, Afzalur Rahman
indicates: "This enabled all his men to take part in discussion and
offer suggestions and in this way the best solution was found by mutual
consultation." (Muhammad, 170)
Inspiration:
Followers expect their leaders to remain positive about the future no
matter how bad the situation may be. The leader must never give up or
lose hope. An example of how a leader inspires his followers comes from
Abu Bakr. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Muslims were in
shock. Omar was especially distraught. Abu Bakr calmed him down, and
then delivered the following address:
"O People, if you have been
worshipping Muhammad, then know that Muhammad is dead. But if you have
been worshipping God, then know that God is living and never dies."
Patience: In the Quran, God explicitly identifies patience as one of defining characteristics of Islamic leadership:
{And
We appointed from among them leaders giving guidance under Our command
so long as they persevered with patience and continued to have faith in
Our Signs.} (As-Sajdah 32: 24)
Indeed,
like all other believers, a leader can expect to be tested, and he will
need to endure. The example of the Prophet and early converts to Islam
during the boycott of the Muslims in Makkah illustrates the need for
patience.
Humility: A Muslim leader is to be
humble, and must never let his ego get the better of him. Omar, the
second Caliph, lived in a simple house. He had no bodyguards for his
personal security, and walked the streets of Madinah without any escort.
Ali, in his letter to Malik Al-Ashtar an-Nukhai, strongly encourages
him to remain humble in his new position as Governor of Egypt, and
explains to him why pride and arrogance are to be avoided:
“Never
say to yourself, ‘I am their Lord, their ruler […], and I must be obeyed
submissively and humbly.’ Such a thought will unbalance your mind, will
make you vain and arrogant, will weaken your faith in religion and will
make you seek the support of any power other than God’s […].” (To the
Commander, 8)
The following story demonstrates
how the Prophet exhibited patience and humility when a ban was imposed
on the Muslims by others:
"When we
complained to God's Messenger (peace be upon him) of hunger and raised
our clothes to show we were each carrying a stone over the belly, God's
Messenger (peace be upon him) raised his clothes and showed that he had
two stones on his belly." (At Tirmidhi)
The willingness to seek consultation: Islam stresses consultation in all affairs. Through the Quranic phrase amruhum shura baynahum
and the Prophet’s habit of seeking and accepting advice, the limits on
the exercise of power have been set both by the Quran and the Prophet.
As Al-Buraey points out, shura (consultation) plays a critical
role in administration and management, specifically with respect to
decision-making; it provides a restraint on a leader’s administrative
power and authority.
4- Follower Characteristics
Follower
characteristics also represent an important ingredient in the
leadership process. Just as in the case of their leader, the
characteristics of Muslim followers affect their behavior. These
characteristics correspond to those of their leaders except for the
additional characteristics of obedience to the leader and dynamic
followership.
Obedience: At all times, the leader must be obeyed. Ibn Omar reported Prophet Muhammad as saying:
"Hearing and obeying are the duty of a Muslim, both regarding what he likes and what he dislikes." (Al-Bukhari & Muslim)
As
Muhammad Asad indicates, after a leader has been duly elected, he may
“be considered to have received a pledge of allegiance from the
community.” As a result, both the majority who voted for him as well as
the minority who may have voted against now owe obedience and
allegiance. Islam considers obedience to the leader so important that it
views any kind of insubordination to be abhorrent unless in very
specific circumstances.
Dynamic Followership:
Although Islam emphasizes that followers should comply with the
directives of their leader, it does not condone blind subservience. On
one occasion, Omar was suggesting the quantity of dowry to be fixed at
the time of a marriage ceremony. What he said was not in accordance with
Islamic principle. A lady immediately stood up and said:
"O Omar,
fear God." Hearing her sound argument based on the Quran, Omar realized
his mistake and said: “The lady is right and the leader of the Muslims
(himself) is wrong." (Ibn Hajar)
Omar’s behavior illustrates clearly that followers in Islam are not to be passive bystanders should the leader err.
Conclusion and an Example of a Model Muslim Leader
The Islamic model of leadership emphasizes khuluq or
behaving ethically towards all, Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Firmly
grounded by his faith in God, and mindful of his role as a trustee, a
Muslim leader is expected to be just, behave righteously, strive towards
self-improvement, and never break his word. He is to consult with
others, especially in areas where he is not competent. He is expected to
bear adversity patiently, and remain forever humble.
Such
exemplary Muslim leaders are rare. One such leader, President Cassam
Uteem of the Republic of Mauritius, has been tremendously effective in a
country where Muslims are a minority. Humble, he has refused to stay at
the Presidential palace. He has steadily waged a war against
corruption, and has championed the plight of the poorest in his country.
He is loved by one and all. He believes that humanity can only grow and
prosper by accepting the fact of cultural diversity, by learning about
their differences as well as by reinforcing the values that they share
in common. For him, multi-culturality can only thrive in an open civic
society with the full participation of all. In so doing, Muslims and
non-Muslims alike will be implementing a critical Quranic injunction,
expressed as 'li ta’aarafuu'—to get to know one another—an injunction addressed by God to mankind as a whole, not to Muslims alone:
{O
mankind, we have created you from a single pair of a male and a female,
and have made you into nations and tribes that you may know one
another.} (Al-Hujurat 49: 13)
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References
Leadership and Islam section at the Islamic Workplace blog:http://theislamicworkplace.com/leadership-and-islam/
This paper is an excerpt of the book "Leadership: An Islamic
Perspective" by Dr. Rafik Beekun & Dr. Jamal Badawi. It is
republished with the authors' kind permission.
http://www.onislam.net
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